References Dutro, S., & Kinsella, K. (2010). English language development: Issues and implementation in grades six through twelve. In California Department of Education, Improving education for English learners: Research-based approaches (pp. 151-208). Sacramento, CA: CDE Press. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University Press. Odlin, T. (1990). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Swan, M. & Smith, B. (2001). Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems. Cambridge University Press. “The differences between English and Arabic.” Frankfurt International School. Available at http://esl.fis.edu/ grammar/langdiff/arabic.htm Walick, C. & Sullivan, A. (2015) “Educating Somali Immigrant and Refugee Students: A Review of Cultural-Historical Issues and Related Psychoeducational Supports.” Journal of Applied School Psychology, 31:4, 347-368. English Grammar Point Language Transfer Issue Sample Transfer Error Language Background Cause of Difficulty VERBS Linking verbs Omits the linking verb She tired. (She is tired. She seems tired.) Mandarin, Vietnamese In some languages, be is implied in the adjective form. In other languages, the concept is expressed with a verb. Helping verbs Omits the helping verb in the passive voice Omits helping verbs in negative statements Omits helping verbs in questions The essay done. (The essay is done.) Sara no coming on the field trip. (Sara is not coming on the field trip.) What they found? (What did they find?) Mandarin, Vietnamese Mandarin, Spanish Spanish In Mandarin and Vietnamese, the passive voice does not require a helping verb. Mandarin and Spanish do not use helping verbs in negative statements. Spanish does not use helping verbs in questions. have vs. be Uses have instead of be I have seven years. (I am seven years old.) Spanish Spanish and English have different uses for have and be. GRAMMAR TRANSFER CHARTS Tlii
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